MHG Volunteer Blog 26: Goat's rue

We're halfway through a year of brilliant weekly Medieval Herb Garden blogs! It was a hot one this week...

Find out more about the blog series here.

South-facing garden, clear blue skies and a temperature of 28°C before 9:30am – what a day! Today, we started (and finished) early due the heat.

We carefully worked around the fairy lights from Saturday's Proms at the Castle event, and helped to remove them. Dave, Caroline and Carole carried out some spot weeding - thistles, spent nigella, green alkanet, and of course the ever-present cinqfoil. Louis forgot to bring his long trousers - a must for the MHG! So instead, he helped to tidy up after ABBA at the Castle on Sunday and then watered all the potted plants.

Fairy lights for Proms at the Castle

After carrying out the Monday flower count, Carole talked with a group of students from New College Pontefract. They asked questions about volunteering in general and the MHG in particular. So, after 2 – 3 hours we all called it quits and went home for a lie down in a darkened room. 

Rain later in the week (hopefully).

Plant of the Week: Goat's rue (galega oficinalis) 

The English name 'goat's-rue' is a translation of the Latin 'Ruta capraria'. It was used for the plant in 1554 when it was considered to be related to 'Ruta graveolens', or common rue, and 'capraria', referring to goats. Its more modern Latin name, 'Galega', means 'to bring on milk'. It used to be fed to goats to increase milk production.

Goat's rue is originally from Europe and countries surrounding the Mediterranean. It is a robust, bushy, clump-forming, deciduous, leguminous, perennial plant. It grows to a height of 4.5ft and a width of 3ft.

It has smooth and branched stems. These bear pinnate leaves with from six to eight pairs of green, lance-shaped leaflets, ¾ to 2 inches long. The plentiful pea-like, white, lilac or purple flowers are borne on axillary erect racemes during mid-Summer to early Autumn.

Goat's rue will grow in sun or partial shade in moist, but well-drained, neutral to slightly alkaline soil. It has a slightly sweet scent when bruised, and a bitter, acidic taste.

Goat's rue growing in the Medieval Herb Garden

Folklore and other facts about goat's rue

In ancient Greece, goat's rue was believed to be a gift from the gods to help humans with their ailments.

In some cultures, goat's rue is believed to bring good luck. It is said to protect against evil spirits and witches if hung above doorways.

Goat's rue is sometimes used as a natural dye, producing a yellow or green colour. It has also been used as a replacement for rennet during cheese-making.

Medieval uses*

Medieval herbalists often included goat's rue in their potions and remedies. They believed it had magical properties.

Goat's rue was used for plague, worms, digestive issues, snake bites, all kinds of fevers, small-pox and measles and St Vitus' dance. It has a long history of use as a galactagogue, a substance that promotes lactation in nursing mothers.

The plant was believed to have diuretic properties, helping to flush out toxins from the body. Some traditional practices suggest its scent may have calming or relaxing effects.

Raw goat’s rue is considered poisonous to livestock. While human poisoning is rare, the plant can cause headaches, weakness and potentially interfere with blood clotting medications.

Modern uses*

Culpepper’s 'Complete Herbal' (1653) said to use goat’s rue for symptoms we now know are symptomatic of type-2 diabetes. 200 years later, scientists discovered that goat’s rue is rich in a chemical called guanidine, which lowers blood sugar levels. Unfortunately, this can be toxic.

However, a chemist, George Tanret, identified a slightly less toxic compound from the plant called galegine. A synthesised form of this chemical is the basis for metformin. This is the most commonly prescribed drug for type-2 diabetes today.

*Please don't use any plants mentioned in these blogs as medicine without advice from a doctor.

In time for Pontefract Liquorice Festival, next week’s Plant of the Week will be liquorice!

MHG Volunteer Blog 25: Chicory

It's time for the latest blog from our dedicated team of volunteer gardeners at Pontefract Castle.

Find out more about their blog series here.

Following Carole’s free talk last Saturday (in the rain - but no one seemed to mind), it was time for the start of the “great cut back”.  So down came the woad, purple comfrey, green alkanet, Jacob’s ladder and the sages.  These will all grow back again this year, and some will also re-flower.

Helen took sage cuttings for selling later in the year. Caroline and Louis pricked-out some angelica, motherwort and goat’s rue seedlings. Weeding was still to be done and the sales barrow was re-stocked with liquorice, dahlias, white cosmos and asters.

It took two people over four trips to clear all this woad!

Plant of the Week: Chicory

It has been suggested that chicory’s other name 'succory' came from the Latin 'succurrere' (to run under), because of the plant's tap root. It may, however, be a corruption of 'Ctchorium', a word of Egyptian origin. In various forms, this is the name of the plant in many European languages. 

Chicory has many other names such as blue daisy, blue dandelion, ragged sailors, wild bachelor's buttons and wild endive.

Chicory plants in flower in the Medieval Herb Garden

Chicory is a woody, herbaceous perennial originally from Western Europe and North Africa. It grows on roadsides, waste places and other disturbed areas. It prefers to be South-facing, in any well-drained, but not heavy, clay soil.

With a deep tap root, it can grow to a height of 5ft. The stems of the plant appear from a tough, grooved and hairy stem. The general appearance of the plant is "stiff and angular" as the lateral branches are set at a wide angle to the stem. The leaves are stalked, lanceolate (narrow oval shape with pointed end) and unlobed. They range from 3 to 12.5 inches in length and 0.75 to 3.25 inches wide. The leaves become smaller as they occur up the plant.

Chicory flowers in early Summer. There are many daisy-like flowerheads, generally in clusters of two or three. The flowers are 1.25 - 2 inches wide, and usually light blue. Rarely, it can also flower white and, even rarer, pink. The MHG has all three colours!

Of the two rows of petals, the inner is longer and erect. The outer is shorter and spreading. However, by early afternoon the flowers close.

Blue and white chicory flowers falling through fennel fronds

Culinary uses of chicory

Raw chicory leaves are 92% water, 5% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contain next to no fat. They provide 23 calories (96 J) per 100g. They also have significant amounts (more than 20% of the recommended daily allowance) of vitamin K, vitamin A, vitamin C, some B vitamins and manganese. Vitamin E and calcium are present in moderate amounts.

It can be eaten raw as salad leaves and used to flavour bitter herbal custards and omelettes. The root can be baked or roasted. Chicory can also be boiled as a root vegetable, as long as the water is changed a few times to reduce the bitterness.

Chicory can be 'forced' like rhubarb. Deprived of light, the young leaves become blanched and greatly elongated. These leaves are soft and nearly free of the bitter flavour present when the plants are grown in the open air.

Globally, chicory is used as a coffee additive or replacement. Pure chicory drinks are also available. They are said to taste like coffee but with a slightly woody and nutty taste. This drink contains less caffeine than coffee.

Folklore and other facts about chicory

There are very similar stories about the origins of chicory from Roman, Greek, pre-Celtic and German folklore. Though slightly different in detail, they all contain the idea of a woman waiting or watching for her lover to return.

If the rare white flowers were placed under the linen shawl of a pregnant woman, it was supposed to make birthing easier.

It was valued for its ability to ward off evil spells or bad luck. The root was worn as a protective amulet, as it could break any magical spell.

Chicory has long been associated with coffee. In 1766 Frederick the Great banned the importation of coffee into Prussia. In response, Brunswick innkeeper Christian Gottlieb Förster invented a chicory coffee substitute.

It was also used in the UK during the Second World War. 'Camp Coffee', a coffee and chicory essence, has been on sale since 1885.

Chicory has been shown to reduce the severity of parasitic nematode infection in cattle.

Medieval uses*

Chicory was used in many European and North African countries and by native American tribes. The plant juice was used as a remedy for diarrhoea. The leaves and flowers were applied to boils and infected wounds, skin rashes, gout and to sore, inflamed eyes.

The root was widely used for gall bladder and kidney disorders, gastroenteritis and digestive problems, and for diseases related to the liver and spleen.

However, when taken too freely, it can cause pooling of blood in the digestive organs. If used to excess it is said to lead to sight loss.

*As always, this isn't to be considered medical advice today. Please don't use any plants mentioned in these blogs as medicine without advice from a doctor.

MHG Volunteer Blog 24: Lovage

It's time for the latest blog from our dedicated team of volunteer gardeners at Pontefract Castle.

Find out more about their blog series here.

This week we planted new summer savory and lavender plants. These replaced some plants badly affected by dogs using them as a toilet...  Dave dug up some more woad to make room for Carole to add five new plant varieties.  This increases our total to 164 different varieties in the Medieval Herb Garden!

Helen potted-on liquorice, dahlias, boysen berries, asters and white cosmos. These will go on sale later in the week. Quite a few plants need to be cut back, but this will wait until after Carole’s talk this Saturday.

Potted-on plants getting ready for sale

Plant of the Week: Lovage (Levisticum officinale)

The name "lovage" is from "love-ache". 'Ache' is a medieval name for parsley. This is a folk modification of the older French name 'levesche', from late Latin 'levisticum'. This in turn is a modification of the earlier Latin 'ligusticum', meaning 'of Liguria' (northwest Italy). The herb was grown extensively there.

Lovage grows to a height of 8ft, with a spread of 3ft. It is a pungent, clump-forming, upright, herbaceous, deciduous, perennial plant. It is formed from a rosette of tripinnate leaves, up to 28 inches long. The stems have shiny, hairless, green to yellow-green leaves. The leaves have a strong smell, and are small.

Lovage flowers in early Summer. The flowers are yellow to greenish-yellow and 2-3 mm in diameter. They are produced in large numbers in umbels up to 10-15cm diameter.

It will grow in any South-facing or West-facing, moist but well-drained soil, with an ideal pH of between 5 and 7.6.

All parts of the plant, including the roots, have a strong smell. They contain extractable essential oils.

Lovage growing tall in the MHG

Culinary uses of Lovage

Leaves of the lovage plant can be used fresh or dried. Fresh leaves can be used in soups, salads, casseroles and stews or salads or to flavour dishes. The roots can be eaten as a vegetable or grated for use in salads. Its flavour and smell are smiliar to celery and parsley, but they are more intense and spicier.

In the UK, an alcoholic lovage cordial was traditionally added to brandy as a winter drink. It was popular in Cornwall where it was originally added to slightly spoiled smuggled brandy to hide the taste of salt.

Folklore and other facts about Lovage

In Ukrainian folklore, lovage (любисток/liubystok) was used by women to rinse their hair. The spicy scent was believed to attract men, so lovage was considered an aphrodisiac! Nowadays, hair conditioners can be bought which contain lovage extract to strengthen the hair.

In Polish folklore, lovage is tied to both love and protection against supernatural entities. This includes the strzygoń (an undead creature).

The volatile oil extracted from the roots is highly valued for use in perfumery, soaps and creams. It has been used for flavouring tobacco products.

Lovage plants are very sensitive to aphids as well as diseases caused by fungi. Leaf miners attack the plant's leaves and leave behind white coloured burrowing spots. It may also be susceptible to celery leaf spot.

Medieval uses of Lovage*

Since the 1300s, the rhizome and roots of lovage have been used to increase the flow of urine and dissipate wind. Lovage was considered to be good for treating urinary tract infections and kidney stones, jaundice, malaria, pleurisy, boils, eye inflammation, aching throats, rheumatism and gout.

The roots were used in the treatment of sore throats, haemorrhoids and skin ulcers.

In Iranian folk medicine, lovage was used for the treatment of several gastrointestinal, nervous and rheumatic disorders.

*As always, this isn't to be considered medical advice today. Please don't use any plants mentioned in these blogs as medicine without advice from a doctor.

MHG Volunteer Blog 23: Foxglove

It's time for the latest blog from our dedicated team of volunteer gardeners at Pontefract Castle.

Find out more about their blog series here.

This week it was back to weeding. We made sure that we didn’t accidentally dig up the clary sage, borage, marigold and winter savory seedlings that are starting to come through. These will later be potted-on and sold on our sales barrow. We also continued deadheading the marigolds to encourage more flowers.

The mullein plants are starting their statuesque and heavenward climb. They will soon be putting out their yellow flowers. Unfortunately, the largest specimen is having its leaves shredded by the caterpillar of the mullein moth (cucullia verbasci). Hopefully, the flowers themselves won’t suffer too much.

Two pesky mullein moth caterpillars having a snack

Plant of the Week - Foxglove (digitalis purpurea)

Digitalis purpurea was named by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1753. 'Digitalis' comes from the Latin word 'digitanus', meaning 'finger' for the thimble-shaped flower. 'Purpurea' refers to the colour of the flowers, which are often purple (though sometimes white).

There have been many suggestions for where the name 'foxglove' comes from. It is an ancient name and exists in a list of plants from the time of Edward III (1327-1377). The prefix 'fox' has most likely been miscopied over time from 'folks'. To our fourteenth century ancestors, these were the fairies. 'Glove' may have come from the Anglo-Saxon 'gliew'. This was the name for a musical instrument consisting of many small bells. So, put the two together and you could get ‘Fairy Bells’, one of its many common names.

All parts of the foxglove plant are poisonous. Care should be taken when handling it.

Foxgloves are native to the UK and Europe. It is a biennial or short-lived perennial, evergreen, herbaceous plant. It will grow in full sun or partial shade in any moist but well-drained soil. It grows in any aspect but north-facing. It often grows where the soil has been recently disturbed, like the field poppy.

Foxgloves growing in the Medieval Herb Garden

The leaves are green, spirally arranged, simple and oval. They are 3.9 to 13.8 inches long and 2 to 5 inches broad. They have a toothed margin. The leaves are covered with grey-white hairs, giving it a woolly texture. The foliage forms a tight rosette at ground level in the first year. 

The flowering stem, developing in the second year, is typically 3.3 to 6.6 ft tall. The flowers open first at the base of the stem and graduate upwards. They are arranged in a showy, terminal, one-sided, elongated cluster. Each flower is tubular and hangs down. The flowers are typically purple, but occasionally white. The inside surface of the flower tube is heavily spotted.

There are no culinary uses of foxgloves as they are very poisonous!

Folklore and other facts about foxgloves

In the Scottish borders foxglove leaves were laid around babies’ cradles to protect them from witches. It is said that creating a boundary of foxgloves keeps the evil eye away. In Shropshire, they were put in children's shoes for the same reason.

A Welsh legend explains why foxgloves bend and sway. As the flower is sacred to the fairies, it has the power to recognize them. It bows in deference to them as they drift along.

Foxglove has a long association with witches and witchcraft. It is believed that foxglove can enhance psychic abilities and facilitate spiritual growth and intuition.

Larvae of the foxglove pug (Eupithecia pulchellata), a moth, eat the flowers of the common foxglove. The caterpillars of this moth crawl into the newly opening flowers, one caterpillar to a flower. It then spins a silken web over the mouth of the flower, sealing it. The caterpillar then proceeds to feed on the stamens and developing seeds.

In Britain, other species of Lepidoptera (winged insects) have been recorded eating the leaves. These include Mellicta athalia and Xestia ashworthii.

Medieval uses*

Foxglove was one of the many herbal remedies used by the ancient Romans. Its use for the treatment of heart failure has been traced back to the 900s AD in Europe. However, digitalis was not widely used for this purpose.

The plant’s leaves and flowers have anti-inflammatory properties. They were used to relieve pain. They were also used (with care) for kidneys and various urinary conditions, abscesses, asthma, epilepsy, tuberculosis, constipation, headache, spasm, burns, boils, headaches, removing excess phlegm and mucous, paralysis, stomach ulcers and open wounds.

Bruising the leaves and binding them around old sores would help to cleanse, dry and heal them.

However, overdosing could result in vomiting, diarrhoea, delirium and death.

*As always, this isn't to be considered medical advice today. Please don't use any plants mentioned in these blogs as medicine without advice from a doctor.

On that jolly note, why not explore the rest of our Medieval Herb Garden blogs?

MHG Volunteer Blog 22: Solomon's Seal

Want to explore Pontefract Castle's Medieval Herb Garden in more detail? Here's the latest volunteer blog! You can also browse all past MHG blogs here.

This week was the start of the tying-up and cutting-back season.

Helen weeded in front of the lavender. Carole dug up the large woad plant which was now out of place. It had accidentally been left in-situ when the other woad plants were moved to their new location last Autumn. She also cut back the white comfrey, which should produce another crop of flowers later in the year. With fingers crossed that the old folktales were correct, Carole then cut back the greater stitchwort. This is in the hope of thunderstorms and much needed rain!

Following the recent high winds, the purple comfrey was looking a bit tattered. We tied it up so it didn’t swamp the elf docks, various mallows, and other plants which surround it. This in turn will probably be cut back in a couple of weeks. With the green alkanet, it will be used to make our own liquid fertilizer.

Windswept purple comfrey in the Medieval Herb Garden

Plant of the Week - Solomon’s Seal (polygonatum multiflorum)

Polygonatum comes from the ancient Greek for "many knees". This refers to the multiple-jointed rhizome. One explanation for the derivation of the common name "Solomon's seal" is that the roots bear depressions which resemble the royal seal of King Solomon. Other names are: David’s harp, fraxinella, seal root, drop berry, ladder to heaven, and white root.

Solomon's seal is a deciduous, clump-forming, herbaceous perennial. It is a close relative of lily of the valley. It appears in Spring as an upright shoot of tightly-furled leaves.

Alternate, smooth, oval, ribbed, leaves then unfold from a long arching stem that can reach 3 feet in length.

Small clusters of two to seven flowers then appear, hanging in opposite direction to the leaves. The flowers are sweetly-smelling and creamy white to yellow-green. In Autumn red to black berries appear which are poisonous.

Solomon's seal in the Medieval Herb Garden

It has creeping, rhizomatous roots, which can be divided in Autumn. It will grow in any moist but well-drained soil, in any level of sunlight.

Culinary uses of Solomon's seal

The roots softened for some time in water produces a starchy substance. This is capable of being used as food.

In Turkey, the young shoots are boiled and eaten like asparagus.

Folklore and other facts about Solomon's seal

The origin of the plant is traced back to King Solomon’s days 3500 years ago. He said that the herb was a gift from God due to its many uses.

According to tales and legends, the Seal of Solomon was the symbol on a signet ring owned by King Solomon. This allowed him to control demons and genies.

In traditional folk magic, the plant can be used for exorcisms and to protect a home from evil spirits. It can be infused in water then sprinkled over an area, or the dried roots can be placed in the corners of a room, to keep out unwanted influences.

In China, the herb’s first recorded use goes back to the Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing) of the 1st century AD. It is known as one of the top ten medicinal herbs in Asia.

The flowers and roots are used as snuff. They are celebrated for their power to cause sneezing and relieving stuffy noses. They also had a wide vogue as aphrodisiacs, for love philtres and potions!

Solomon's seal was used for hair massages to strengthen brittle and weak hair.

Medieval uses*

The root was used to heal and close new wounds, hurts, and “outward sores”. It could dry and restrain fluids from old wounds. It also stopped vomiting and bleeding.

Combined with other remedies, Solomon's Seal was given in pulmonary consumption and bleeding of the lungs.

It was used as a tonic, and was good in inflammations of the stomach and bowels, piles, and chronic dysentery.

It was used for healing bones and the removal of bruises, both internally and externally. It was also used for all types of skin complaints, and as a cure for St Anthony’s Fire.

Reporting on Solomon’s seal in 1597 John Gerard stated, “As touching the knitting of bones and that truly which might be written, there is not another herb to be found comparable to it for the purposes aforesaid”.

*As always, this isn't to be considered medical advice today. Please don't use any plants mentioned in these blogs as medicine without advice from a doctor.

Wayne: My Work Placement with Wakefield Museums and Castles

This blog has been written by Wayne who has been volunteering with us at the museum store since 2021. He has also been doing a university course on preventative conservation. Wayne has been looking at how museum objects can be stored, displayed, and generally looked after in ways that protect them from damage.

As part of Wayne’s course, he had to do a student placement where he would put some of what he has learned into practice. He chose to do his student placement with us! Read on to find out what he's been up to.

Wayne lightly dusting a uniform cap with a paintbrush and the Museum Vac at the Museum Store

My Work Placement with Wakefield Museums and Castles

I'm Wayne. I have just completed my university student placement module with Wakefield Museums and Castles at the museum store. I have also been a volunteer here for a long time now and so it was nice to take on a different role.

During my placement I worked closely with various members of the Museums and Castles Team on different projects. The guidance and generosity of the staff played a crucial role in my development. They helped me expand my knowledge further by putting into practice what I have been learning.

My first project was to look at light levels. I was checking if the light in the museum and the museum cases was too bright for the objects on display. Different types of objects have different reactions to brightness levels. Some of these reactions can cause permanent damage or colour fading to the object. Light levels are checked with a light meter. This measures the brightness of light in lux, or by the amount of light that falls on a surface, which is measured in lumens per square metre.  

Rows of boxes of carefully stored objects in the Museum Store

I started the project by locating light-sensitive objects (objects most likely to fade or become damaged) that are on display in the museums, using the collections database. I then checked how long they had been on display for. Damage caused by light can also be affected by how long an object has been exposed to light.

To prevent light damage from happening, it is important to regularly test, monitor, and set light brightness. We also calculate how long the object can be displayed for before it becomes at risk of light damage. When an object reaches its display time limit, it should be moved to dark storage where it can “get some rest”. 

The next stage of my work was to identify which of the museum objects on display have reached their display limit so that they can be swapped and moved to dark storage.

Food collections

Now this may sound strange to many people that already know food and museum collections don’t go together normally! Food can rot or attract pests like mice and insects. These may then damage other objects as well.

However, there are some food objects in the museum collection. They can tell us a great deal about the past. One such object is a hot cross bun from the Crimean War. This bun is nearly 200 years old. It is said to have survived inside a pocket of a soldier because he forgot it was there “like you do”.

The hot cross bun that survived the Crimean War!

This brings me to my next project, which I also decided to base the written part of my student placement on. Before I could start the project, I had to locate all the food objects in the museum collection. This was not easy! A lot of the object records on the collections database describe the wrapping, or box, but not always whether the food itself was still in the packaging.

Once I identified the food, I looked at its condition and whether it was in sealed packaging and whether it had dried out or started to rot or fall apart. I then looked at how these food-based objects could be stored and displayed in a way that would prevent or stop any deterioration.

After I started to research this, I soon realised that there was a gap in information in this area. The information I did find included protecting the food from the threat of pests by keeping them in sealed containers. These will keep out even the smallest insect.

A freshly repacked box with food collection objects - not to be mistaken for your lunch...

The food was also placed inside separate plastic bags. This meant that more than one object can be packed in a box, but each object is still sealed and separate. I also placed a humidity strip and silica gel into the boxes. The humidity strip monitors how much moisture is in the box and the silica gel absorbs it.

Once everything was repacked into plastic boxes, I put all of the food objects into the same storage area. This will make it easier to check them, as this will need to done regularly.   

Working with the museum team, we did make the decision to remove some of the food from its packaging and dispose of it. Some of these objects included food that were in open packets, like some crisps from 1981 that really did smell bad!

Out-of-date commemorative Bovril Flavour crisps, anyone?

There were also some bonbons that had turned brown in colour. We did keep the packaging for the museum collection, however.

A jar of plums 'bottled on the first day of the Great War, 1914-18'

I would like to thank all the staff at the museum store and many others that made my work placement an enjoyable experience.

MHG Volunteer Blog 21: Horseradish

Want to explore Pontefract Castle's Medieval Herb Garden in more detail? Here's the latest volunteer blog! You can also browse all past MHG blogs here.

Another Bank Holiday. So, of course, the weather was blustery and overcast. Following the recent windy, but well-needed, downpour, the Medieval Herb Garden was looking a little battered in places. With the rain, no doubt the weeds will be back with a vengeance!

Carole carried out the weekly flowering-plant count and re-stocked the sales barrow. She was also kept busy talking to visitors, helping with the dungeon tour and dodging rain drops!

A thriving part of the MHG

Plant of the Week - Horseradish (armoracia rusticana)

The name 'horseradish' first arose in the 1590s. The word 'horse' could be used to mean strong or coarse. 'Radish' comes from the Latin 'radix', meaning root. It has other names such as monk’s rhubarb, patience and red cole.

Horseradish comes from eastern Europe. It is a vigorous, perennial herbaceous plant of the family brassicaceae. This family also includes mustard, wasabi, broccoli, cabbage and radish.

Horseradish has hairless, bright green, unlobed leaves up to 3ft long. The leaves may easily be mistaken for dock leaves.

It doesn’t always flower. However, when it does in May to June, it produces small, white, four-petalled flowers. If grown for eating, the large white root should be dug up, leaving some behind to produce a plant the following year.

Horseradish in flower in the Medieval Herb Garden

Culinary uses of horseradish

Horseradish was first used in cooking in the 1600s (it was used for other purposes much earlier). Tthe leaves of the plant are edible, either cooked or raw when young. They have a flavour similar to, but weaker than, the roots.

Prepared horseradish is a common ingredient in Bloody Mary cocktails and in cocktail sauce. It is also used as a sauce or sandwich spread. Horseradish sauce is a common accompaniment to roast beef - and has been since the late 1600s!

Prepared horseradish is white to creamy beige. It can be stored for up to 3 months in the fridge. Eventually it will lose its pungency, darken in colour, and develop a bitter flavour.

Outside of Japan, the Japanese condiment wasabi is now usually made with horseradish. Traditionally it is made from the true wasabi plant (wasabia japonica), but horseradish is much more readily available. The Japanese botanical name for horseradish is seiyōwasabi or "western wasabi".

Folklore and other facts about horseradish

Legend has it that the Delphic oracle told Apollo: “The radish is worth its weight in lead, the beet its weight in silver, the horseradish its weight in gold.”

30,000 metric tonnes of horseradish are produced in Europe annually. Hungary is the biggest producer, producing 12,000 tonnes.

"Cabbage worms", the larvae of pieris rapae, are a common caterpillar pest of horseradish. Another common pest is the mustard leaf beetle (phaedon cochleariae).

In the Fens, horseradish was used to predict the sex of an unborn child. Both parents placed a piece of horseradish under their pillows at night. Whichever parent's piece turned black first would indicate the sex of the child.

Medieval uses*

The ancient Greeks and Egyptians used horseradish as a rub for lower back pain and as an aphrodisiac. Horseradish was used for loosening phlegm in the body, whether in the sinuses, joints, or blood. It was good for conditions such as lymphedema, arthritis, sciatica, colic, strangury, scurvy, colds and flus, and expelling worms in children.

Some used horseradish syrup as an expectorant cough medicine. Others were convinced it cured everything from rheumatism to tuberculosis.

*As always, this isn't to be considered medical advice today. Please don't use any plants mentioned in these blogs as medicine without advice from a doctor.